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Anti-Social BehaviourRecreation reduces self-destructive and Anti-Social Behaviour
The role of physical activity and exercise in the prevention of drug abuse is promising; most studies have shown the mental health benefits of exercise such as reduced depression and anxiety, yet exercise is also useful for physical health reasons such as counteracting the weight gain associated with smoking cessation plus help mitigate the fall in cholesterol levels following reduced alcohol consumption. (Williams, 1994)
The likelihood of youth never smoking is directly related to level of physical activity. More than 80% of Canadians between 10 and 24 Years of age who are active have never smoked. (Stephens et al., 1990)
Researchers concur that the incidence and level of smoking decreases with physical activity. In fact, physical activity and exercise may confer significant benefits relative to the prevention of drug abuse and may be an important component of a comprehensive prevention program. Such exercise-related benefits as improved mood, enhanced self-concept, and reduced symptoms of anxiety and mild to moderate depression suggest that physical activity and exercise may provide a useful adjunct in alcohol and other substance abuse prevention and treatment programs. (Bouchard et al., 1994)
Researchers analyzed data from a national survey of Icelandic adolescents and concluded that sport participation in clubs and groups positively relates to life satisfaction. Adolescents involved in club and group sport smoke and drink alcohol less than non-sport participants. In addition, the study supports the physiological benefits of group and especially club sport participation. (Viljialmsson et al., 1992)
An analysis of the impact and benefits of Physical Activity and Recreation on Canadian Youth at Risk was conducted cooperatively by the Inter-Provincial Sport and Recreation Council, The Fitness Directorate of Health Canada and the Canadian Parks/Recreation Association, (1994). A striking observation from the 465 participants of the 64 focus groups was the degree of consistency between the groups. One result and observation was the incredible potential and benefits of physical activity and recreation initiatives to positively impact on youth at risk. They stated that physical activity/recreation can help youth at risk by:
Professor Fennell (1996) completed a study of participation and needs regarding the recreation behaviour of youth in Regina. The study surveyed 653 students from grades 7 to 10 across Regina in 1996. The top five benefits identified from the list of 24 mentioned are: "fun (92.9%), happiness (81.5), friends, (81.7%), skill (81.7%) and fitness (78.6%).
There is some evidence that physical activity can influence alcohol abuse indirectly through enhancing self-esteem. (Gary et al., 1972)
Having a strong Internal Personality - believing that good things are due to one's abilities - is positively related to factors preventing delinquency; these include achievement, academic motivation, popularity, delay of gratification, and resistance to coercion. Many of these factors can be reinforced through physical activity, and recreation programs focusing on goal setting. (Collingwood et al., 1992)
Researchers examined the relationship between substance use and adolescent leisure behaviours. Their review shows that high self-esteem and leisure participation is associated with lower rates of substance use and abuse and that sub components of self-esteem are inversely related to the stage of usage. (Montelpare et al., 1993; Butler, 1982)
Evidence from research by Rancourt (1991) documents how individuals with substance abuse involved in a comprehensive leisure education program showed increased knowledge and skills in self-awareness as well as social skills and social interactions.
When examining extracurricular activities of adolescent drug abusers versus non-users, it was shown that:
In summary, non-users tended to be highly involved in extracurricular activities, spent more time with their family and less time with peers/friends than did the drug abusers. (Shilts, 1991)
Researchers found that leisure activities participated in by abusers prior to drug use were different than the non-users. That is:
There is an inverse relationship between organized sport involvement and the use of alcohol, tobacco, and other substances. Also non-smoking and being a former smoker is associated with exercise, particularly for females. Researchers concluded that 'encouraging adolescents to become involved with demanding physical activity could be an effective strategy to decrease drug use". (Montelpare et al., 1993)
Several studies examined the use of physical activity as an intervention for reducing substance abuse and found; significant increases in ratings of self-concept, and significant decreases in anxiety and depression. A significant drop in the multiple drug use was also found. Similar results were achieved in earlier studies integrating fitness classes into an intervention program. Half the subjects improved their fitness scores as well. (Collingwood et al., 1991)
Among young people, high levels of fitness are associated with decline in smoking and drinking behaviour, healthier eating habits and with increased self-esteem. (Guzman, 1992)
D.A.R.E. (Drug Abuse Resistence Education) is a proven prevention program in both drug abuse and violence reduction for children ages 10 and 11 years old (grade 5 and 6). This cooperative program between police officers, schools, and parents, includes support and services from recreation agencies; "The enthusiasm for D.A.R.E. with students is especially evident near the end of the course when the officers changed to casual clothes and played soccer, baseball, or ball hockey with the classes." (Morrison, Peel Region, Ontario)
Treatment results for adults showed that exercise benefits recovery from cocaine dependence, improves rates of abstinence among alcoholics, acts as a natural medicine leading to favourable emotional changes in clinical populations, and improves self-esteem and sleep among alcoholics who participated in a fitness program. (Bell et al., 1987)
High quality sport programs in public housing locations could significantly reduce the incidence of behavioural and emotional disorders in children and youth. (Offord et al., 1989)
Sport participation is often seen as a way to relieve frustration mainly because it involved intense concentration and often produces physical exhaustion. Participation in sports puts us in a setting separate from the more serious concerns of our daily existence. This, along with the heavy focus on physical movement and the social interaction occurring while we participate, makes sport refreshingly unique in most of our lives. (Coakley, 1994)
Sport participation teaches people to control aggressive responses in the face of defeat, hardship, and pain. People assume that learning to endure such negative conditions in sports will carry over into the rest of life, and enable people to behave nonaggressively. (Coakley, 1994)
Wilderness, adventure and outdoor programs have been implemented frequently with youth and adults with psychological and emotional disorders. (Austin et al., 1991)
Wilderness Alternatives for Youth (WAY) an outdoor recreation program achieved positive results with delinquent youth. A study with 115 participants assigned to control and experimental groups were measured for changes using 33 different scales at pre-test, post test stages as well as 3 months and one year later. The experimental group participated in a three week wilderness program. Significant differences between these groups were seen on a number of measures including focus of control, depression, aggression, and counselor/parent ratings. (Sakofs, 1992)
Some researchers believe that Outward Bound programs have an added advantage in that they "reflect the structure of. delinquent subculture without the negative ingredients of antisocial and destructive behaviour." Other benefits are factors like special leadership structure, isolation from typical surroundings, an introduction of working class youth to middle class subculture, and as potential contributors to the success of an Outward Bound Program. (Sudgen et. al., 1982)
Mild adventure recreation has been shown to increase street kids' self-esteem, self-concept and self-confidence. This type of activity also helps to develop trust in oneself and others, decision making skills, cooperative behaviours, positive relationships and support and has the ability to empower youth to take better control of their lives. (Bass, 1992)
A popular treatment model is the milieu approach, in which all aspects of the treatment environment contribute to the client's care. This involves group therapy, individual psychotherapy, an emphasis on social skills development, and availability of support groups such as AA, NA, social services, therapeutic recreation, creative arts therapy and family therapy. (Austin, 1991)
"Student engagement and persistence improve with an arts-based curriculum". The arts can transform the classroom environment, making learning a lively invigorating experience, and teach discipline, the value of sustained effort to achieve excellence, and the concrete rewards of hard work. All these factors can encourage higher attendance and decrease drop-out rates. A 1991-94 National Longitudinal Study (Final Report, Cotterall, 1995) showed that schools using the arts-based program, "Different Ways of Knowing" resulted in:
The 1990-91 "Humanities Program Evaluation", (Aschbacher et al., 1991) reported that "Students see relationships, question and analyze material, and clearly articulate thoughts through this program. Results from the evaluation were:
In total 920 elementary students in 52 classrooms were studied in this national longitudinal study in Los Angeles, Boston, and Cambridge, Massachusetts. (in National Endowment for the Arts, 1995)
An after school program for at-risk high school students at a community arts center in Pittsburgh found that 75% of the Manchester Craftsmen's Guild students went on to college; the Guild's success shows how valuable community arts groups can be to school districts. (Safe Havens by Davis, 1993; in National Endowment for the Arts, 1995)
It is clear, substance abuse is not a cause of Aboriginal crime, but rather a symptom of a much more complex social disorder. Educators, criminologists and government institutions, including the Commissioners of the recent Aboriginal Justice Inquiry of Manitoba believe there is a strong relationship between delinquency and participation in Structured recreation and sport activities. The Aboriginal survey determined the following benefits to be the most important:
The rate of suicide is 2-3 times higher among Aboriginal than non-aboriginal Canadians generally and 5-6 times higher among aboriginal youth than their non-aboriginal peers. The Royal Commission Draft #6 stated "Recreation can be a way out of the monotonous and often destructive life that is the situation facing so many aboriginal youth". (Ministry of Culture, Tourism and Recreation, 1995)
A conservative estimate would place the costs of crime in Canada in the range of $46 billion annually. This estimate is based on the costs in the criminal justice system (i.e. $9.7 billion) representing 21.2% of the total cost of crime. (National Crime Prevention Council, 1996)
National Crime Prevention Council held organized meetings with 100 young men and women and 180 adults who work with young people. One of their findings on what works to prevent crime is: "Programs that work emphasize the positive, not the negative." A positive approach does not define itself in terms of 'fixing' problems, even though it may be set up to address a specific problem such as crime, tow literacy, boredom or gang membership. Instead, it aims to offer positive experiences to people who are having problems. Positive programs recognized to be effective are those that:
The conclusion of their report 'Clear Limits and Real Opportunities: The Keys to Preventing Youth Crime' states that "We are at a time when we have to dare to do things differently. For too long we've relied 'on official systems and mainly the justice system, to solve our problems. This approach has left us quaking in our boots because we have forgotten how to deal with our own life problems." (National Crime Prevention Council, 1995)
In the 19th century, physical activity was viewed as a means to help prevent delinquent behaviour. In the 20th century, it was endorsed by social and educational reformers. (Resolution, 58 National Convention, Sage, 1986)
Congressman Bruce Vento (D-Maine) is among an increasing number of political leaders and community activists who insist there is a better way to fight crime. 'Urban recreation and sports programs are a proven, commonsense and cost-effective means of preventing crime and delinquency", he says. "Our urban youth crime rate would be different if these programs had not been neglected in the past decade." Vento says, "without funds for parks and recreation facilities ... without accessible and well-maintained places to recreate, there can be no recreation." (Trust for Public Land, 1994)
Reduction of crime and victimization must focus on decreasing violence. Levels of aggressive behaviour, without intervention, tend to stay the same over time. This is supported by findings that indicate 70% to 90% of male adults who committed violent offences were highly aggressive as children (Farrington, 1991). Anti-social behaviour is most stable in youths who show high levels of aggression. These Links stress that children must have opportunities to develop non-aggressive ways of relating to others. This will help children develop along paths leading to pro-social attitudes and behaviours. "Aggressive three-year-olds are likely to remain aggressive without intervention." (Tremblay et al., 1994)
Benefits of the provision of recreational sport opportunities for young offenders include; enhanced self-esteem, development of self-awareness, more disciplined attitude, greater awareness of health and hygiene, gains in confidence, peer group socialization, and positive adult role models who care about participants. (Crompton, 1993)
A comprehensive literature search related to the potential of recreation in delinquency intervention found that: there were increases in self-esteem and improved overall self-concept; and there were decreases in the sense of hopelessness of at-risk or delinquent youth. (McKay, 1993)
A Youth Restitution Program with the Detroit Recreation and Parks Department has shown marked success in using leisure programs to combat juvenile delinquency. The program included assigned and supervised community service work in recreation centres helping with children's programs, facility maintenance and improvements, plus distributing meals to seniors. In addition, leisure counseling was available to the youth to help them make positive leisure choices. Results showed:
The Phoenix Arizona Parks, Recreation and Library Department added late night/weekend recreation programs for teens plus expanded leisure programs for them over the summer months. The result was a 52% reduction in juvenile crime. A series of programs were provided at a cost of 4 cents per person, whereas it costs $38,000/year to lock up one teen. (Phoenix Parks/Recreation, 1994)
Research on-the relationship of athletic involvement and delinquency rates has generally indicated a negative association - athletes are less likely to be involved in delinquent behaviour (Donnelly, 1981; Hostod et al., 1984; Purdy and Richard 1983; Segrave, 1983) - the relationship has been found to be strongest for elementary and high school athletes of lower socioeconomic class. (Wankel & Berger, 1991)
Researchers concluded that:
Correlations between attitude to physical education, concept of physical self and self-concept were positive among youth involved in sport and negative among delinquent youth. Positive correlations were also between youth sport involvement and socioeconomic status on one hand and between youth sport involvement and peer status. (CFLRI, 1995)
Aggression has been reduced through the practice of traditional martial arts which focus on self -discipline and the psychosocial aspects of the art. (Trulson, 1986)
Life skills taught through appropriately planned physical activity programs may assist in the prevention of crime. For example; a physical activity intervention program was used to teach self - responsibility. Results showed improvements in positive classroom behaviour and in self-control on the playground, better understandings of feelings and problems, less of a 'chip' on their shoulder, more self-confidence, more trust of authority figures, improved concept of teamwork, better awareness of their own behaviour problems, more awareness of others' rights, and greater understanding of the behaviours associated with the program's definitions of self-control and caring. (DeBusk, 1989)
Research results indicate that a summer sports camp for children that included the development of leadership skills showed there was reduction in crime rates with the communities participating in the camps/ sports program. Also there was increased levels of happiness, reductions in stress and anxiety, alertness, enjoyment, greater levels of involvement in physical activities as well as more positive perceptions of leisure and attitudes towards the RCMP. Camp also reduced boredom from daily routine. (Searle et al., 1994)
Searle's (1989) review of literature on the benefits of recreation showed from a study of remote northern Manitoba communities that there was a 17.39% reduction in crime by communities participating in the community sports program and on average a 10.6% increase where communities were without the program. The conclusion; those who were actively engaged in socially acceptable pursuits were less prone to commit crimes.
The national crime rate is 92.7 per 1,000 population, while the crime rate for Indian bands is 165.6 per 1,000 population (1.8 times higher than the national rate). "Recreation activities for Aboriginal youth are nonexistent in many Aboriginal communities. Boredom is a common complaint of the young people and a serious concern of community leaders. There is no question in our minds that the absence of constructive social and recreational opportunities is linked to the incidence of juvenile delinquency." (Ministry of Culture, Tourism and Recreation, 1995)
Winter and Currie have demonstrated in their 1987, 1989 and 1993 work that sport programs can reduce crime rates in Aboriginal communities when most other crime prevention initiatives have failed. Northern Fly-In Sport Camp research has indicated that crime rates have decreased by as much as 60% in host communities during the period when the sport/ recreation project was in operation; thus sport programs can be a deterrent to delinquent behaviour. (Ministry of culture, Tourism and Recreation, 1995)
In Charleston, South Carolina, we know the crime rate dropped during the three hours of midnight basketball. (Allen, p.354. in Lee, 1995) Midnight basketball league programs offer a payoff to participants which is more desirable than that of criminal activity. The players are respected by their peers, they receive rewards if they win, and they are exposed to successful people from business and other professions. These are positive payoffs rather than negative punishments. (Colorado Parks/Recreation, 1993).
Recreation expenditures have been shown to decrease rates of homicide, aggravated assault, burglary, larceny, and auto theft. As expenditures go up, the rates for these crimes go down. It can be concluded that service policies affect crime rates in a positive manner more than control policies. (Colorado Parks/Recreation, 1993)
The therapeutic potential of the Outward Bound process in treating juvenile delinquents was examined by Wright (1983). He found significant increases in self-esteem, self-empowerment (self-efficacy and locus of control), internality, and cardiovascular fitness. The cautious conclusion of a review of all studies (Wright, 1983) was that participation in an Outward Bound program would reduce contact with the juvenile justice system during the first year after the program. (Easley, 1991)
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania has seen a reversal in urban decay and growth in community pride through the work of the Philadelphia Anti-Graffiti Network. The Network invites, and sometimes employs, young people (former graffiti vandals) to paint the sides of buildings with murals on subjects of their own choosing. There are now over 1,200 murals throughout the city; graffiti has been cut back 50%, and the waiting list for murals includes over 1,500 buildings. The artists get 'booked' on community appreciation; press interviews make them "heroes on the right side of the law" (Alberta Community Development)
Community green space and recreation programs can make a difference. In Philadelphia, after police helped neighborhood volunteers clean up vacant lots and plant gardens, burglaries and thefts in the precinct dropped by 90% - from about 40 crimes each month before the cleanup to an average of only four per month. In the summertime, when Phoenix basketball courts and other recreation facilities are kept open until 2:00 a.m., police calls reporting juvenile crime drop by as much as 55%. But reports of crime go up again in the fall once gymnasiums go back to regular hours. (Trust for Public Land, 1994)
Phoenix, Arizona Department of Parks, Recreation and Libraries instituted a community services program in May, 1990 to minimize the high costs of juvenile crime, namely "City Streets Project". The initial program focus was on 'structured detention' including intake, interview, and basic recreation activities. In August, 1994, parks and recreation in collaboration with Phoenix South Community Mental Health and Tumbleweed Services, Inc. implemented a crisis intervention service for the 'at risk youth' Also, a juvenile detention diversion-program was also launched in 1994, giving violators the option of attending a parent child communication skills class.
In 1993-94, approximately 5,200 youth were detained for curfew violations In the first 11 months of the program, police statistics reveal a 10.4 % reduction in juvenile arrests for violent crimes such as homicide, sexual assault, robbery, and aggravated assault. During that same period adult crimes, city-wide, increased 6.7% while overal1juvenite crime increased only one half of one percent. (NRPA, Beyond Fun and Games, 1994)
In Hart County, Georgia, Project HYDRA - Hart Youth Development Resource Association - puts young first offenders into a recreation and mentor program as part of an informal probation. In HYDRA’s first year of operation, juvenile complaint calls felt by 14% and incarcerations by 2 5%. (Trust for Public Lands, 1994)
The Cincinnati Recreation Commission initiated a "Late Evening Recreation Program" in 1993. The Friday/Saturday [ate evening recreation program hosted visits during the initial 13 week period. During the same period, the number of criminal incidents dropped.24%, from 645 to 491. City and federal officials directly attribute this to the late-evening recreation initiative. (NRPA, Beyond Fun and Games, 1994)
Fort Myers, Florida Recreation Department initiated the "STARS -Success Through Academic and Recreation Support" program in 1991. The crime statistics read like a criminal rap sheet with the largest age group of repeat offenders (1,275 between the ages of 13-16) also having the highest school suspension rate -83%. STARS is a program of peers and adults providing positive rote models and activities such as baseball, martial arts, drama and culture, piano, modern dance, computers, aviation, journalism and youth crime watch.
According to a detailed study, STARS yielded many benefits for the community; juvenile crime declined for three years in a row. Crime rates for repeat offending youth age 14 dropped; for youngsters 11 and under the rate dropped 66%; for youth 11 arid 12, the rate of repeat criminal behavior dropped 64.3%; for youngsters 13 and 14, the rate dropped 26%. (NRPA, Beyond Fun and Games, 1994)
Westland (1991) found in a review of the literature on leisure arid mental health that "virtually all play situations provide ample testimony to the fact that once the game starts, social distinctions disappear and the 'status' of the participants is determined by their ability to play the game."
Research on soccer teams at the community level has indicated that assimilation of ethnic groups into the mainstream society may occur when the team represents diverse ethnic groups. (McKay, 1975, Pooley, 1976)
Recreation activities can serve to release tensions; fulfil desires for risk, challenge and competition; and act as an outlet for violence. It is a preventive approach that can be implemented before any unnecessary racial violence occurs. (Lynch et al., 1981)
Recreation can serve to overcome isolation , a most basic cause of racism, where ethnic and non-ethnic groups are not in contact with each other. Unfamiliarity leads to contempt and mistrust, thus the need for social interaction through recreation services. (Lynch et al., 1981)
Dembroski (1987) has shown that unicultural activity often leads into intercultural participation. The study showed that members of ethnocultural seniors clubs located in community centres eventually participate in other activities within the centre. The same report indicates that the most effective way to bring people of different cultural backgrounds together is through annual festivals where the uniqueness of each culture is shared through food, crafts, or entertainment. (Alberta Community Development)
The Heritage Festival in Edmonton, Alberta promotes ethnic and cultural harmony by having over 50 cultures participating together. Also special events like 'Dreamspeakers (Aboriginal Arts and Cultural Festival), Cariwest (Caribbean Carnival), and Giovanni Caboto Day (Italian celebration) help people understand and appreciate the different cultures and their uniqueness through food fairs, crafts, and entertainment. These festivals help people to appreciate the diversity of cultures and respect the differences that make communities strong. (Jevne, 1996)
Understanding one's self and others expands with arts education. Cultural studies challenge students to respond to the world and look beyond themselves to the connectedness of 'human society. The arts foster understanding of other cultures, histories, myths, values, and beliefs. Some evidence of this are:
Sport helps emotionally disturbed adolescents become more confident, more expressive, and more independent and autonomous. A study demonstrated that sport helped the children feet more self confident and more capable of making new friends. (Dozier et al., 1978) Physically disabled youth who participated in sport programs have shown improvements in self-concept and self-acceptance. (Seefeldt et al., 1986)
A study of fourth and fifth graders showed that sport has the potential of developing prosocial behaviour with children, (particularly females) like courage, achievement motivation, independence, perseverance, and aspects of behaviour that reflect positive interpersonal behaviour such as generosity, fairness and cooperativeness. (Kleiber et al., 1981)
In a study involving 1,671 children aged 11, 13 and 15 years from a nationwide sampling of schools in Denmark, there was a significant relationship between high level of physical activity and high social class, ability to integrate into a peer group, easy contact with parents and friends, high degree of life satisfaction and good health. (Holstein et at., 1990)
Soccer teams at the community level indicate that assimilation of ethnic groups into the mainstream society occurs when the team represents diverse ethnic groups. (Pooley, 1976)
Sport fosters desirable values as well as social interaction providing that winning is kept in perspective and the emphasis is on a positive, enjoyable youth sport experience which facilitates the development of desirable skills and behavioural practices for all participants. (Wankel et al., 1991)
Two specific treatment approaches on deviancy, delinquency and related social problems are leisure education and leisure counseling. Both of these approaches contribute to promoting socially acceptable leisure and enhance the victim's leisure appreciation, awareness and opportunities. (Austin, 1991)
Leisure activities provide a social setting for the initiation and development of primary social relations. Life for people in later years can be characterized by social losses (e.g. loss of friends and the social milieu at work upon retirement, death of friends and spouse), but leisure activities can provide a social milieu to create new social relationships. (McPherson, 1991)
Rosenberg (1986) found that older adults involved in an organizational activity had significantly better scores on the happiness scale than those who did not belong to any association.
Leisure was found to be important for adults over 65 years of age through its facilitation of social integration. (Steinkamp et al., 1987)
A study to review community activities was conducted by the United Community Services of Metropolitan Detroit (1987). It found that all of the different agencies involved shared a common philosophy... prevention of negative uses of leisure. Providing recreation programs as a means of strengthening community by teaching positive attitudes and values, can be used in a variety of situations (e.g. educational, social, therapeutic).
A National Survey on volunteers, conducted by Statistics Canada, provided data on Ontario volunteers. 35% of Ontario respondents rated meeting people and companionship as 'very important' (Ontario Ministry of Tourism and Recreation, 1990)
A study of the recreational needs of homeless and recently homeless people stated that good recreational opportunities are essential and can make substantial differences to the quality of life for those tending to .survival matters like shelter, food, and jobs. Accessibility to recreation opportunities increases self-esteem and provides a wide range of choices for being involved in community activities. (Ward, 1990)
The sociological benefits of adventure outdoor education include compassion for others, group cooperation and formation of friendships (Ewert, 1986) among participants and instructors. People who participate in outdoor adventure do come away with strong friendships. This is due, in part, to the sharing of a physically demanding mentally stressful experience which draws individuals into closer personal relationships. Working under stress creates group cohesion, cooperation and a sense of teamwork. In a research project conducted at North Carolina Outward Bound School in 1988, 22% of the participants perceived themselves as being able to deal more effectively with other individuals, and friendship and teamwork with other crewmembers was
seen as having a positive impact on their health. The research showed that adventure experiences do much to bring a group closer together to help individuals form interpersonal relationships. Other benefits were "they learned to push their physical and mental limit ... and clarified their own values and attitudes". (Latess, 1988)
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